Improving Students' Spatial Visualization in Mathematics Learning with GeoGebra: A Meta-analysis

Abstract

In Indonesia, over the past decade, numerous studies have examined the use of GeoGebra in mathematics education to enhance students’ spatial visualization skills, yet their findings remain varied. This meta-analysis synthesizes 29 quantitative studies published between 2016 and 2025 involving a total of 1,600 students. A systematic search was conducted through the Google Scholar databases. Studies were included if they reported sufficient statistical data (means, standard deviations, and sample sizes) and measured spatial visualization as an outcome of GeoGebra-assisted learning. Qualitative studies, review papers, and studies lacking extractable data were excluded. Effect sizes were computed using Cohen’s d and Hedges’ g, and a random-effects model was applied due to the very high heterogeneity observed (I² = 87.82%). The results show a large overall effect of GeoGebra on spatial visualization (d = 1.232; g = 1.209). Moderator analyses revealed that GeoGebra is most effective at the junior and senior/vocational school levels, and produces the greatest impact when combined with constructivist learning models such as Realistic Mathematics Education, Inquiry Learning, and Project-Based Learning. The strongest effects were found in highly visual topics, including cylinder volume, functions, and three-dimensional geometry. These findings indicate that GeoGebra is a powerful tool for enhancing mathematical visualization and should be integrated into classroom instruction. Future research should explore long-term effects, teacher competency factors, and their influence on other cognitive domains.